The preparation of the codification of Hungarian private law is linked to the Act XVIII of 1791. The legal commission set up under this article was responsible for preparing a draft private law bill. This draft, which took two years to complete and could not be considered up-to-date, only appeared in print decades later, in 1826. Political developments also prevented the second codification attempt provided for by Act XV of 1848. From 1853, the Austrian General Civil Code came into force in Hungary and Transylvania, so codification work was not resumed until the Austro – Hungarian Compromise in 1867. The idea of creating a code governing private law, substantive law and procedural law became predominant from 1895 onwards, when the Minister of Justice, Sándor Erdély, set up a committee to prepare a unified draft of the Civil Code. The drafting of the Code of Civil Procedure and Procedure, Act I of 1911, was largely due to Sándor Plósz. Géza Magyary also played a major role in the drafting of the code, which entered into force in 1915. Károly Szladits played a prominent role in the preparation and dogmatic foundation of Hungarian private substantive law for decades. The Private Law Bill of 1928, which, since it was not enacted, was considered by the courts as a ratio scripta. The influence of Károly Szladits' ideas can be seen both in the Hungarian Civil Code adopted in 1959, which entered into force on 1 May 1960, and in the new Second Hungarian Civil Code adopted in 2013, which entered into force on 15 March 2014.

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After clarifying the nature of the legal culture, the present study examines the operation and effectiveness of alternative dispute resolutions in six European (including English and Hungarian) Islamic, African, Hindu, and Far Eastern (Chinese and Japanese) legal systems. The final conclusion of the article is that a clear rearrangement in the world of legal cultures has begun since the 20th century, in two main directions. On the one hand, Western legal cultures, among other reasons, are more open to exploring and increasingly open to alternative dispute resolutions due to civic dissatisfaction with the judiciary. On the other hand, in Eastern legal cultures, the role of law in conflict resolution is gradually increasing.

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After the Second World War, Hungary was forced into the sphere of the Soviet Union, which was accompanied by the introduction of a socialist based planned economy, the merger of state and party control, and the establishment of a one-man leadership. The author interprets the place and role of book publishing in the cultural policy of the period between 1948-1956 (also called the Rákosi era after the all-powerful leader) and aims to present the institutions governing book publishing. Due to the nature of basic research, the work relies primarily on archival research. The archival corpus that can be included in the research is vast and divergent, containing documents on cultural management and literary policy more broadly, from official provisions to more confidential records. The study examines the cultural governance organization of the dictatorship and its practical operation through a specific segment of the system, the operation of censorship of book publishing, and also demonstrates the organization of state and party supervision of publishers was a paramount task between 1948-1956.

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The games that took place in the ancient city of Olympia every four years for over a millennium held great interest for the people of Greece, and the same is true for the modern Olympics, which have recently celebrated their125th anniversary. The title of Olympic champion has always commanded great respect, granting victorious athletes lifelong recognition in their homeland. Hungary has been a part of the Olympic Movement since the revival of the Games. Our athletes have represented our nation at every Summer and Winter Olympic Games except for two, and they never returned without victories from the Summer Games. Not too long ago, the first Hungarian gold medal was won in the history of the Winter Olympics. The performance of Hungarian Olympians has always been remarkable. As a result, statistics and assessments show that Hungary is a real sports nation, among countries that boast the best results. This has been demonstrated by the six gold medals and altogether twenty podium finishes achieved in Tokyo. With the recent successes at the Tokyo Olympics in mind, the purpose of this paper is to provide a brief overview of certain relevant aspects of the history of the Olympics and the success achieved by Hungarian athletes throughout the years. It also aims to examine the room for maneuver of the evaluation and analysis of the Olympic results, including dynamic approaches and comparisons with international results.

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On 1 September 2020, the Guidelines for the preparation and evaluation of university full professor applications, as amended by the Hungarian Accreditation Committee's Decision 2020/6/IV/2 and adopted by the Board Decision 2019/5/VII/4, entered into force. The revised requirement system represents the transformation of the previous benchmarks. The focus of academic performance has shifted to journal publications but beyond domestic publications, international publications – a prerequisite for international visibility and a prominent place in quality ranking – have also become a condition for achieving academic degrees. The present study examines the impact and consequences of the new requirements on university full professor applications and, more broadly, on international academic recognition, through the publication activities of lecturers at Hungarian universities with a profile in economics and social sciences. Does the “new” regulation of the Hungarian Accreditation Committee affect the scientific progress of the individual and the community or institution?

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Geographically situated in the Global South as the geological extension of the Afro-Eurasian land mass, Africa is centrally situated at the very intersection of global strategic dynamics. Based on this special political and economic position, Africa is re-defining its partnership with various regions of the world, including Central Eastern Europe. These countries played an important role during the African anti-colonial struggles and their early years of nation-formation in the development of the African human capital. Hungary as member of the European Union prides itself with its extensive experience in agriculture, education, science, technology and innovation, it will actively participate in reshaping relations with the countries of the continent. This paper attempts to analyze the current government policy for Hungarian involvement in Africa, with a fuller insight into the foreign economic relations as the most dynamic and thriving framework of cooperation. Finally, it touches upon issues of various trade and investment related financial instruments, and best practice methods of intervention as key elements of a successful long-term strategic Hungarian policy towards Africa.

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Due to the national strategic significance of the topic, the Research Institute for National Strategy aimed to examine the impact of Hungaricums in the development of the affected settlements. In the literature review, we examined the development of the concept of the Hungaricums, evaluated its national strategic significance, and discussed the impact of the Hungaricums on local and national identity. During the primary research, we conducted a questionnaire survey among those Hungaricums in the Hungaricum Collection, which are related to a settlement. We looked for the answer to the question, among other things, to what extent the Hungaricum determines the practice of settlement development, how the management of the settlement relates to it and how the population. We also asked the organizations concerned to what extent the Hungaricums have an impact on job creation and cooperation in the given settlement and region. The results showed that if, in the opinion of the respondents, a Hungaricum plays a more significant role in the development of the settlement, the inhabitants are also more proud of these values. It also turned out that in addition to the greater utilization of the Hungaricum in settlement development, the value can have an impact on job creation and community building at a higher territorial level (not only at the local level, but also at the regional, national or even international level).

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The 19th century saw a boom in the organisation of civil communities in all European countries. Legislative changes gave room for the institutionalisation of associations, clubs and circles, and as a result the number of these organisations multiplied. Research on associations is a multifaceted task, as they cover a range of disciplines depending on their type. Their literature and approaches are therefore diverse. Cultural history, social history, sociology, statistics, legal history, literary history and ethnography can all play a role in the study of associations. The present study examines the types, number and membership of associations in Hungary in the 19th century in a European comparison.

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It is necessary to prepare future teachers to be able to access, interpret and use research results, and publish of their research work. The acquisition of research methodological material and knowledge are therefore essential for teacher candidates. In Hungary, there have been only few studies on research skills and knowledge, and we have little testing experience in this area. The development of research skills of students typically starts late and stops in secondary school, all of which can have an impact on higher education and teacher training. Our research goal was to examine the research methodological knowledge of primary school teacher candidates and kindergarten teacher candidates using an online test that examines the most important knowledge elements of the research methodology with its various tasks. We examined whether there is a difference in the levels of research knowledge test performance between primary school teacher and kindergarten teacher candidates.

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The article highlights the importance of business model innovation and digitalization in the case of symphony orchestras and music education. In order to “survive” and prosper in the future as well, orchestras need to be able to respond to the changing needs of consumers, adapt to changes in the world and fundamentally rethink their business models. Similarly, music education has to be tailored to the 21st century: taking personal lessons is not a prerequisite anymore for learning a musical instrument, and there are many opportunities offered by digitalization that can make home practice more efficient and enjoyable.

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In Hungary, criminal mediation is available for crimes against persons, property and traffic offences. The legal requirement is, on the one hand, that the perpetrator ad-mits to the crime and, on the other hand, that the perpetrator compensates for the damage caused, punishable by imprisonment of up to three years, within the framework of the mediation procedure. If the above conjunctive conditions are met, the offender is not punishable. The legal regulation of the mediation procedure in Hungary has undergone changes in the last few years which justify the conclusion that the extension of the mediation procedure is a legitimate legislative objective in Hungary. This is evidenced by the fact that criminal mediation can be used even if the offence in question is not punishable by law with a prison sentence of more than five years. In this case, the sentence may be reduced without limit. However, under the current national legislation, criminal mediation is excluded if the offender is a repeat offender, and it is not available if the offender is serving a custodial sentence with a final court decision. Mediation is therefore still a limited institution, despite the continuous demand for its expansion, and its positive benefits, such as the joint processing of trauma experienced by the victim and the offender, the possibility of reparation, or the promotion of social bonding, are not fully integrated into the re-integration policy of prisons. Instead, prisons use the so-called mainstream reintegration tools, with particular attention to education and forms of employment.

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